An Unrealised Gender Dividend (GS Paper 2, Social Justice)
Introduction
- As economists struggle to explain the stagnation in women's participation in wage work in India, conservative social norms are often cited as the main reason why rising economic prosperity has not translated into greater employment for women.
- However, this assumption that social stagnation is holding back progress is misleading.
- Emerging data from recent studies, particularly the India Human Development Survey (IHDS), challenges this view and suggests that while significant social changes have occurred, the key barriers to women's economic participation lie elsewhere.
Overview
- The India Human Development Survey (IHDS), conducted by the University of Maryland and the National Council of Applied Economic Research, tracks changes in the lives of over 42,000 Indian households from 2004 to 2024.
- The survey focuses particularly on the aspirational transformations among young women (aged 20-29) over the past decade.
Education and Marriage Trends
Education Gains:
- There has been a substantial improvement in the educational attainment of young women in India.
- In 2011-12, only 27% of women aged 20-29 had completed Class 12, but by 2022-24, this figure had risen to over 50%.
- College graduation among young women increased from 12% to 26%, achieving gender parity with men in terms of higher education attainment.
Delayed Marriages:
- Young women are also delaying marriage, reflecting a shift in social norms.
- The percentage of married women in their 20s dropped from 76% in 2011-12 to 66% in 2022-24.
Autonomy in Marriage
- While marriage remains a family-centric affair, young women are increasingly involved in decisions about their partners.
- In 2012, only 42% of young women had a say in selecting their partners, but by 2022, this had risen to 52%.
Premarital Contact:
Interaction between spouses before marriage has also risen:
- In 2011, only 30% of women had met their husbands before marriage, and 27% connected via phone or email.
- By 2022, these figures increased to 42% and 54%, respectively.
Changing Social Norms
Son Preference:
- A major shift has occurred in attitudes toward gender.
- Preference for sons decreased significantly, from 23% in 2012 to 12% in 2022.
Increased Mobility:
- The proportion of women comfortable traveling alone by bus or train has increased from 42% in 2012 to 54% in 2022.
Social Engagement:
- Membership in Self-Help Groups (SHGs), which are key to economic empowerment, grew from 10% in 2012 to 18% in 2022.
Political Engagement
Political engagement has also seen an upward trend:
- Attendance at gram sabha (village council) and ward committee meetings increased from 6% in 2012 to 8% in 2022.
Economic Participation
Stagnation in Wage Labour:
Despite significant social changes, wage labour participation among women has stagnated:
- The proportion of women engaged in wage labour fell from 18% in 2012 to 14% in 2022.
- This stagnation is also observed among women in their 30s, showing that the trends are not limited to younger women alone.
Interest in Employment:
- Despite the stagnation in wage work, there is strong interest among women in gaining employment:
- 80% of unemployed married women in 2022 expressed a willingness to work if jobs were available, up from 73% in 2011.
- Similarly, 72% of families indicated they would support women working if suitable jobs existed.
Success Stories
MGNREGA:
- The introduction of equal pay under MGNREGA (Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act) led to a notable increase in women’s participation in manual work in rural areas.
Improved Transportation:
- Improved transportation infrastructure has also facilitated non-farm work opportunities for women, enhancing their ability to take up employment outside traditional agricultural sectors.
Conclusion
- Of the four key areas of women's empowerment—personal efficacy, power in intra-household negotiations, societal engagement, and access to income-generating activities—India has made notable progress in the first three domains.
- Social norms have evolved, with gains in education, autonomy in marriage, and political participation.
- However, the fourth domain—access to employment—remains stagnant.
- India’s economic growth has not yet translated into a corresponding increase in women’s workforce participation, despite the clear desire and willingness of women to work.
- There is a gender dividend waiting to be realized, and it is high time to invite India’s daughters to share in the benefits of economic development.
- They have shown they are ready and willing to contribute, but they need the right opportunities, including access to employment, to help India fully realize its growth potential.
