India’s oldest living city found in Vadnagar (GS Paper 1, Culture)
Why in news?
- A joint study by five prominent institutions has found evidence of a cultural continuity in Vadnagar in present-day Gujarat even after the collapse of the Harappan civilisation, thus making it likely that the “Dark Age” was a myth.
- The deep archaeological excavation at Vadnagar was conducted by a consortium of scientists from the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), Physical Research Laboratory, Jawaharlal Nehru University, and Deccan College.
Key Findings:
- It has now found evidence of a human settlement that is as old as 800 BCE contemporary to late-Vedic/pre-Buddhist Mahajanapadas or oligarchic republics.
- The study also indicates that the rise and fall of different kingdoms during the 3,000-year period and recurrent invasions of India by central Asian warriors were driven by severe changes in climate like rainfall or droughts.
Cultural stages in Vadnagar:
- Vadnagar was a multicultural and multireligious (Buddhist, Hindu, Jain and Islamic) settlement.
- Excavation in several deep trenches revealed the presence of seven cultural stages (periods) namely, Mauryan, Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian or Shaka-Kshatrapas (‘Satraps’), descendants of provincial governors of ancient Achaemenid Empires, Hindu-Solankis, Sultanate-Mughal (Islamic) and Gaekwad-British colonial rule and the city endures even today.
- One of the oldest Buddhist monasteries has been discovered during our excavation. They found characteristic archaeological artefacts, potteries, copper, gold, silver and iron objects and intricately designed bangles.
- They also found coin moulds of the Greek king Appollodatus during the Indo-Greek rule at Vadnagar.
- The period between the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilisation and the emergence of the Iron Age and cities such as Gandhar, Koshal, and Avanti is often depicted as a Dark Age by archaeologists.
Oldest living city:
- Archaeological records are rare, the earliest one being the rock-inscription of Emperor Ashoka at Sudarsana Lake, Girnar hill, Gujarat.
- The evidence makes Vadnagar the oldest living city within a single fortification unearthed so far in India. Some of our recent unpublished radiocarbon dates suggest that the settlement could be as old as 1400 BCE contemporary to very late phase of post-urban Harappan period.
- If true, then it suggests a cultural continuity in India for the last 5500 years and the Dark Age may be a myth.
Why is aviation safety under scrutiny?
(GS Paper 3, Economy)
Why in news?
- The issue of air safety has played out under intense media scrutiny following two aviation incidents.
Details:
- In the first instance, on January 2, a Japan Airlines (JAL) Airbus A350-900 collided with a Japan Coast Guard De Havilland Canada Dash 8 after its landing, with both aircraft catching fire.
- In the second instance, on January 5, an Alaska Airlines Boeing 737 MAX 9 with 171 passengers and six crew, was departing from Portland, U.S., when a window panel ‘door plug’ blew out mid-air causing depressurisation.
What happened after the Boeing case?
- The incident has renewed attention on the Boeing 737 MAX’s troubled flight safety record. On January 12, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) in the U.S. announced more “oversight on Boeing” which will be in addition to its probe into the incident.
- In its investigation, the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB), U.S., is also focusing on the cabin pressure control system.
- The FAA has added that every Boeing 737 MAX 9 with a plug door would remain grounded till there was a thorough review. In the Alaska incident, parts of the seat next to the ‘door plug’ were damaged, while some other seat frames were twisted.
- India’s Directorate General of Civil Aviation also reported an unidentified Indian operator of the Boeing 737 MAX 8 finding a missing washer during a maintenance inspection.
- This follows a Boeing directive in December 2023 asking 737 MAX operators to carry out checks after a loose bolt was found in the rudder control system of a 737 MAX (the airline has not been named).
What does the Airbus incident show?
- The JAL Airbus was flying from Sapporo New Chitose to Tokyo Haneda, which is the world’s third busiest domestic airline route (according to aviation data). This is also the first complete hull loss of an A350.
- However, it was the survival of all the passengers on a new technology aircraft that drew attention, highlighting the importance of crew training, the critical response time of fire and rescue teams and the advances in aircraft manufacturing technology.
- In the JAL incident, as the aircraft’s public announcement system malfunctioned, the cabin crew had to conduct the evacuation using megaphones and voice commands. All passengers were evacuated through three emergency exits.
What about newer aircraft technology?
- There is increasing use of composite materials in Airbus (A350) and Boeing aircraft (787 and 777), which ensure a combination of durability, strength and low weight.
- In the A350, more than half of the plane’s structure was composite, with the use of advanced materials such as carbon-fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP). The JAL fire was a real world test for such an aircraft, and the forensic analysis will offer valuable technical insights to investigators and manufacturers.
- In the Boeing 787 programme, for instance, there have been computer simulation models of the behaviour of composite materials in extreme situations, but these have left structural and material experts divided. But in fire tests by the FAA in November 2007, plastic composites were shown to withstand fire much better than metal.
What are the key safety improvements?
- The FAA-governed improvements have also led to improved standards being put in place. These include: improved flammability of seat cushions adopted by the international aviation community;
- floor proximity emergency escape path marking;
- lavatory smoke detectors;
- lavatory fire extinguishers;
- halon fire extinguishers;
- cargo compartment liners;
- improved interior materials especially for large surface area panels to ensure reduced heat release, and smoke emissions test standards;
- the use of 16G seats; improved access to Type 3 exits;
- cargo compartment fire detection or suppression as well as new thermal/acoustic insulation.
