Daily Current Affairs

Seeing the magic of AI applications in ophthalmology (GS Paper 3, Science and Technology)

Context:

• A computer can perform better than a human brain particularly in the field of ophthalmology.

 

AI:

• Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a branch of computer science that focuses on creating computer systems and software that can perform tasks like problem-solving, learning, reasoning, understanding natural language, and perceiving the environment.
• The aim of AI is to develop systems that can mimic and replicate various aspects of human intelligence or cognitive functions, and thereby automate and enhance processes, make predictions, assist in decision-making, and improve the efficiency and capabilities of systems and devices.
• There are certain aspects of artificial intelligence that make it particularly useful in medicine.

 

Potential uses in ophthalmology

• Retinal disease diagnosis: AI algorithms can analyse retinal images, such as fundus photographs and optical coherence tomography (OCT) scans, to detect and classify various retinal diseases, including diabetic retinopathy, age-related macular degeneration (AMD), and glaucoma. These AI systems can help identify diseases at an early stage, allowing for timely treatment and reducing the risk of vision loss.
• Automated screening: AI-powered screening programmes can assist in the early identification of eye diseases by analysing large datasets of retinal images. This can be particularly useful in regions with limited access to ophthalmologists, and in mobile medical camps.
• Glaucoma diagnosis and management: AI can aid in monitoring glaucoma progression by analysing visual field tests and OCT scans. It helps ophthalmologists in making more informed decisions about the treatment and management of glaucoma patients.
• Customised treatment plans: AI can recommend personalised treatment plans for patients with conditions like AMD. By analysing patient data and clinical information, AI can assist in tailoring treatment strategies to maximise effectiveness
• AI is also being used regularly by ophthalmologists in surgical assistance. During eye surgeries, AI can provide real-time guidance to surgeons by tracking eye movements, enhancing precision, and reducing the risk of complications.
• AI is also used to diagnose and stage Retinopathy of Prematurity (ROP) , a blinding disease affecting premature& low birth weight babies and in telemedicine.

 

Discovering new drugs:

• Besides these regular areas, AI is also being used to discover new drugs for ophthalmic conditions by analysing vast datasets to identify potential therapeutic targets and compounds and in predicting whether individuals may develop eye diseases, based on their health records, lifestyle factors, and genetic data. This can help in early intervention and preventive care.
• Besides this, there is the rather well-known deployment of AI in managing and analysing electronic health records and keeping them secure.
• AI is being used in ophthalmic research to model disease pathways, thus speeding up the development of new treatments and technologies.

 

Deployment of AI:

• In ophthalmology, as perhaps any other crucial field, deployment of AI involves a systematic procedure that includes data acquisition, preprocessing, model development, validation, and deployment.
• The first step is to gather a large and diverse dataset of relevant ophthalmic images and patient records. These datasets may include fundus photographs, OCT scans, visual field tests, and other types of eye-related data. The data is appropriately de-identified and anonymised to maintain patient privacy.
• It is standardised and normalised to ensure consistency in terms of format, resolution, and colour. It is then annotated, and labelled with relevant information (e.g., disease diagnosis, severity levels, patient demographics).
• The data must be divided into three subsets: training, validation, and testing data. A common split is 70% for training, 15% for validation, and 15% for testing.
• The training dataset is used to teach the AI model, the validation dataset is used to fine-tune the model and optimise hyperparameters, and the testing dataset is used to evaluate the model’s performance.

 

Feature extraction:

• There is also need to extract relevant features from the images or data. For ophthalmic images, this could involve detecting blood vessels, optic discs, or lesions. Feature extraction is particularly important for traditional machine-learning approaches.
• Post that, it is time to focus on model development. Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) are commonly used for image-based ophthalmic applications. The model has to be taught to recognise patterns and make predictions based on the provided data.
• It is fine-tuned using the validation dataset and parameters are adjusted as needed until it reaches an acceptable level of performance.
• Common evaluation metrics include accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, and area under the receiver operating characteristic curve. Only when the AI model demonstrates sufficient accuracy and reliability, can it be integrated into clinical practice. After deployment, it is important to continue to monitor the AI system’s performance, especially in real-world clinical settings.

 

Smart vision glasses:

• An innovation that has come to really benefit people with vision impairments is the smart vision glasses. These glasses incorporate a combination of hardware, software, and artificial intelligence (AI) to provide a range of features aimed at improving the visual experience for those with vision challenges.
• Smart glasses are equipped with cameras and sensors to capture the user’s surroundings. Advanced image recognition algorithms and AI are employed to identify and describe objects, text, people, and more within the wearer’s field of vision.
• This information is then conveyed to the user, often through audio feedback. Smart glasses can also convert printed text into audible speech, allowing users to “read” signs, documents, labels, and other text-based content. This helps individuals navigate and understand their environment.
• The glasses can offer real-time directions, guiding users through indoor and outdoor spaces using GPS and mapping data.

 

Why SLLs also need to be reformed

(GS Paper 2, Governance)

Why in news?

• Recently, the bills were tabled to amend the substantive criminal law as codified in the Indian Penal Code (IPC), Code of Criminal Procedure (CrPC) and Indian Evidence Act (IEA).
• The offences and procedures outlined in the IPC or CrPC represent just one facet of a general criminal law and its vital to recognise that the most critical offences and procedures are encompassed within the Special and Local Laws (SLLs).

Why SLLs?

• Keeping SLLs away from the ongoing reform process is a major drawback. SLLs have immense quantitative and qualitative relevance in the Indian criminal justice system.
• To illustrate, nearly 39.9% of all cognisable offences registered in 2021 were under SLLs. As per the Crime in India Statistics of 2021, of the total of nearly 61 lakh cognisable offences registered, 24.3 lakh offences were registered under SLLs alone.
• On the qualitative side, SLLs have given rise to several fundamental and pertinent debates, discourses and discussions regarding the limits on the state’s power of criminalisation especially in the context of violation of individual rights and liberties.

 

Need for reform in SLLs:

• The substantive issues in SLLs are not only abundant but also varied. SLLs such as the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act, 1967 (UAPA) and the Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act, 1999 (MCOCA) suffer from glaringly deficient, ambiguous and vague definitions of offences and terms such as ‘terrorist act’, ‘unlawful activity’, ‘organised crime’, ‘organised crime syndicate’ etc.
• The Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act, 2012 is increasingly being criticised for its applicability to consensual sexual activities between minors.
• Concerns have also been raised regarding criminalisation of such conduct through SLLs which would otherwise fall squarely within the domain of civil wrongs or at best, regulatory wrongs.
• To illustrate, the Supreme Court in the case of P. Mohanraj versus M/s Shah Brothers Ispat Ltd. (2021) referred to Section 138 of the Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881 as a ‘civil sheep’ in a ‘criminal wolf’s’ clothing.
• It is through SLLs that universally accepted due process values are increasingly being diluted. Increased powers of search and seizure under Section 43A of the UAPA and the admissibility of confessions recorded by police officers under Section 18 of the MCOCA are prime examples.
• The stringent provisions provided for under Section 43(D)(5) of the UAPA, Section 37 of the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1985 and Section 45 of the Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA) 2002 make the grant of bail a near impossibility.

 

Comprehensive collection:

• Between the enactment of the IPC in 1860 and today, there has been a major shift in the canvas of criminal laws.
• The increasing enactments and application of SLLs represents an understanding of criminal laws which is out of sync with the original project of codification.
• The shift represents a major move from the idea of a complete codification of all criminal laws inspired by Bentham’s idea of a “Pannomion” , an all comprehensive collection of rules codified in a single place. The IPC was thus meant to contain within its pages all criminal laws of the time.
• IPC today is criticised for the retention of an archaic morality as well as the colonial roots which underpins many of its offences.
• The challenges to homosexuality under Section 377 in Navtej Johar versus Union of India (2018) and sedition under Section 124A in S.G. Vombatkere versus Union of India (2022) are all symbolic of the need to reform several aspects of our criminal laws.

 

Conclusion:

• As successive governments place increasing reliance on the SLLs for a variety of reasons, it becomes imperative that the same should not be allowed to overpower the idea of codification of penal laws as imbibed in the IPC as well as the CrPC.
• All SLLs which criminalise/seek to criminalise a conduct should find a place as separate chapters within the larger structure of the penal code.
• All SLLs which create a separate procedure for reporting of offences, arrest, investigation, prosecution, trial, evidence and bail must be included either as separate procedures within the CrPC or as exceptions to the general provisions provided therein.
• Non-inclusion of the substantive and procedural aspects of the SLLs in the ongoing reform project is a serious limitation. It is imperative therefore that a second generation of reforms be brought in, in order to address the lacunae.

 

Why are earthquakes frequent in Afghanistan?

(GS Paper 1, Geography)

Why in news?

• An earthquake of magnitude 6.3 struck western Afghanistan recently, barely a few days after multiple earthquakes of similar strength killed at least a thousand people in the Herat province. Multiple earthquakes have destroyed entire villages in the country.

 

Background:

• Afghanistan has faced widespread destruction from intense earthquakes over the years. In June 2022, more than 1,000 people were killed when an earthquake of magnitude 6.1 struck Khost and Paktika provinces.
• In 2015, a major earthquake that struck the country’s northeast killed over 200 people in Afghanistan and neighbouring northern Pakistan.
• A 6.1-magnitude earthquake in 2002 killed about 1,000 people in northern Afghanistan.
• In 1998, another earthquake and subsequent tremors in northeast Afghanistan killed at least 4,500 people.

 

How do earthquakes occur?

• The earth is made up of chunks of solid rocks called tectonic plates. Discontinuities in these rock masses, along which they have moved, are called fault lines. These fractures are a result of tectonic forces and stress that builds up in the earth’s lithosphere, causing the rocks to break and slip.
• An earthquake occurs when blocks of lithosphere suddenly slip past one another, releasing energy and sending seismic waves through the ground.
• The surface where the lithosphere chunks slip becomes a fault plane. The point within the earth where the fault rupture starts and produces an earthquake is called the focus or the hypocentre. The point on the surface of the earth directly above it is called the epicentre.
• Tectonic plates are slow moving but are always in motion, mostly due to the heat energy generated inside the earth. The edges of these plates are called plate boundaries and consist of faults— this is where most earthquakes occur.

 

Why do frequent earthquakes occur in Afghanistan?

• Afghanistan is located over multiple fault lines in the region where the Indian and the Eurasian tectonic plates meet. These plates collide often, leading to significant tectonic activity.
• Afghanistan is located on the Eurasian plate. Towards western Afghanistan, the Arabian plate subducts northward under Eurasia, and towards eastern Afghanistan the Indian plate does the same. In southern Afghanistan, the Arabian and Indian plates adjoin and both subduct northward under the Eurasian plate.
• The Hindu Kush mountain range and the Pamir Knot are geologically complex regions where tectonic plates meet.
• The collision and convergence of the Indian Plate and the Eurasian Plate result in the folding and faulting of the Earth’s crust. This geological complexity contributes to the occurrence of earthquakes in the region.

 

Compression:

• The ongoing northward movement of the Indian Plate towards the Eurasian Plate also results in compression, leading to the uplift of the Himalayas and the transmission of tectonic stress across the entire region, including Afghanistan.
• The compression causes the crust to deform, and creates faults and fractures that can slip and generate earthquakes.  These interactions at plate boundaries generate significant tectonic stresses and result in earthquakes.

 

Active fault systems:

• Afghanistan is also criss-crossed by various active fault systems like the Chaman Fault and the Main Pamir Thrust. These faults are the sources of many earthquakes in the region.